Xiaozhuang's Western Zhaoling Mausoleum.	Formal wear for the Qing empress designed by Sumala.	A portrait of Concubine Rong.

The Eastern Qing Tombs in Hebei’s Zunhua City are the final resting place of five emperors, their respective entourages and three young princes. Of the total 161 corpses interred in the imperial cemetery, 153 are of women.

These ladies of the court were expected to conduct themselves in the nether world as they would in temporal life. Their tombs reflect their status and rank. The Western Zhaoling Mausoleum, however, is exceptional in both construction scale and style; it is distinct among China’s extant imperial tombs.

Empress of Extraordinary Merit

The Western Zhaoling Mausoleum stands conspicuously outside the imperial mausoleum’s vermilion wall, to the left of the entrance. The huge stele in the Tower of Brightness bears the inscription: “Tomb of Empress Wen, Xiaozhuang,” Wen having been her husband’s posthumous title. Xiaozhuang is regarded as integral to consolidating early Qing Dynasty authority. Without her, there would have been no glorious historical period known as the “Prosperity of the Kangxi Reign.” This being the case, it is puzzling that such a meritorious woman, whose unchallenged majesty is reflected in her honorable tomb architecture, should be buried outside the imperial mausoleum.

Xiaozhuang (1613-1687) was born into an aristocratic Mongol family of the Borjigit clan. She was married into the imperial family at age 13, and her husband Huangtaiji later became Emperor Taizong of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). Xiaozhuang was intelligent as well as beautiful. Her political shrewd handling of contingencies during the eventful early years of the Qing Dynasty after her husband’s death singles her out as one of the few accomplished female politicians in Chinese history.

Huangtaiji died a sudden death in 1643, shortly before his final showdown with the Ming Dynasty. Having indicated no preference as to his successor, all his brothers plotted to seize the throne. The most powerful and competitive was Dorgon, a military heavyweight who commanded three of the eight Manchurian banner armies.

Xiaozhuang calmed infighting by proposing to Dorgon that her six-year-old son Fulin succeed the throne. She agreed to act on her son’s behalf until Fulin was old enough personally to handle state affairs, until which time Dorgon would be his regent. The six-year-old thus had the full support of Dorgon and his two blood brothers when he ascended the throne as Emperor Shunzhi.

Shunzhi died in his mid-20s, and was succeeded by his eight-year-old son Kangxi, Having been left fatherless at age eight and motherless two years later, Kangxi was also instructed in statehood and how to conduct himself as emperor by his grandmother, Xiaozhuang. Kangxi had early exhibited political acumen and administrative competence, but the young emperor’s power was initially hemmed in. Oboi, an arrogant, ambitious and powerful figure with considerable military and political support in the court, and his team of four regent ministers consistently overruled the young emperor. Eventually, with the support of Xiaozhuang, 16-year-old Kangxi eliminated Oboi and his clique. Xiaozhuang is acknowledged as instrumental in the accomplishments that distinguished Emperor Kangxi’s reign, particularly his suppression of the Three Feudatories’ Revolt. Kangxi once stated that he could never have achieved what he had without his grandmother’s devoted counsel.

Xiaozhuang lived a frugal life, frequently donating her savings to disaster-stricken areas and victims. Her identifying with and concern for the lives of the ordinary people had a positive influence on Emperor Kangxi and his successor, Emperor Yongzheng. Under their reigns the Chinese people knew peace and prosperity. Xiaozhuang died of illness in 1687. Xiaozhuang, according to imperial proprieties, should have been buried with her husband Huangtaiji at his Zhaoling tomb in Liaoning’s Shenyang, capital of the early Qing Dynasty before it moved to Beijing. She is recorded as telling Emperor Kangxi before her death that she felt it inappropriate to disturb Huangtaiji after he had lain peacefully for such a long time. She missed her son, Kangxi’s father Shunzhi, and wanted to be buried near his tomb -- the Xiaoling Mausoleum -- at the Eastern Qing Tombs. As it was difficult for Kangxi to take such a radical decision, he ordered the construction of a hall where Xiaozhuang’s coffin would be “temporarily” placed. This was no makeshift construction. Kangxi dismantled the hall in the Forbidden City that Xiaozhuang had loved most and reassembled it at the Eastern Qing Tombs. There, together with Xiaozhuang’s coffin, it remained for decades. It was not until after Kangxi’s death that Emperor Yongzheng ordered the hall’s reconstruction in the Western Zhaoling Mausoleum, in 1725, the third year of his reign. His intention was to make it a part of the distant Zhaoling Mausoleum in Shenyang to the east of Beijing. The best fengshui locations within the walls of the cemetery are those of the tombs of Shunzhi and Kangxi. It seemed to Yongzheng fitting that his highly esteemed great grandmother should share this propitious location. Xiaozhuang’s tomb stands outside the wall at the Xiaoling Mausoleum entrance. It is also a good geomantic site, and the first place worshipers stop to pay homage.

Folk literature, however, tells a different story -- that Xiaozhuang had married Dorgon in order to win his full support for her son Fulin. Se declined to be buried with Huangtaiji because she wanted to avoid a confrontation in the nether world. No official document has ever mentioned or hinted at a second marriage, but it is widely accepted in unofficial history.

A Special Maidservant

Not far from Xiaozhuang’s tomb in Western Zhaoling stands that of “Aunt Sumala,” the faithful lady-in-waiting to empress Xiaozhuang. She was born into an impoverished Mongolian herder’s family and became Xiaozhuang’s maidservant as a child, from which time she rarely left her side. Her Mongolian name was Sumor, and her Manchurian name was Sumala. The empress addressed her as sister, and the princes and princesses of the court called her mother or grandmother. All others at the imperial palace, young and old, respectfully addressed her as Aunt Sumala. She was beautiful, clever, kindhearted and fluent in written and spoken Mongolian, Manchurian and mandarin. She was also a talented calligrapher.

During the early Qing Dynasty, Beijing was hit by a smallpox epidemic, and two-year-old Kangxi contracted the disease. He was sent from the Forbidden City to a house in the northern part of the capital. Kangxi’s grandmother Xiaozhuang consigned him to Sumala’s care. She traveled daily on horseback between the Forbidden City and Kangxi’s new home for the subsequent five years. Under her care, Kangxi recovered to become a well-tutored, healthy and lively child. Kangxi was to recall, decades later, that his Aunt Sumala taught him the Manchurian language during those years.

Sumala was also a gifted seamstress and a consultant in the design of the early Qing Dynasty official costumes. Historical documents record that she personally made the patterns that distinguished official ranks.

Sumala remained unmarried all her life in order to devote her life to Xiaozhuang, to whom she acted as aide and confidante during the ruthless political infighting of the early Qing Dynasty. Aunt Sumala was in her 70s in 1687, when her beloved mistress Xiaozhuang died. Kangxi entrusted her with his one-year-old 12th son, mainly in an effort to console her in her grief. The 12th prince grew up to be an upright and competent administrator who shunned political infighting. He lived to the age of 79, surviving all his siblings.

Sumala fell ill in 1705, when in her 90s. At the time Kangxi was on an inspection tour away from the capital. When he heard the news, he ordered treatment for her from a special imperial medical group, and also sent her medicine to express his care and concern. But taking medicine did not fit Sumala’s philosophy on life, and she died shortly after. Kangxi ordered several postponements of her funeral in order to be present and pay her due respect. After 18 years, Sumala finally returned to the side of her mistress Xiaozhuang. Despite never having been promoted beyond the rank of servant, Aunt Sumala burial honors were equal to those of an imperial concubine.

Legendary Concubine

One legendary Qing Dynasty woman is Concubine Rong, the so-called “Fragrant Concubine.” She was a Uygur of the Hoja clan, from present-day Xinjiang and extraordinarily beautiful. Her body was said to generate a natural, hauntingly sweet fragrance. There have been many stories told about this intriguing woman over the past 100 years.

Historical research reveals that Qianlong (1711-1799) was the only Qing emperor to have married a Uygur. But there is no record of her emitting an innate fragrance. Stories about her life and burial circumstances vary widely, but there are two main theories about Concubine Rong: one that she actually was the legendary “fragrant” favorite, the other that Concubine Rong and the Fragrant Concubine were two separate people.

Legend tells of her having been a contemporary of Qianlong. When Emperor Qianlong put down the rebellion staged by her father, she was captured with the other rebels and sent to the Forbidden City. Qianlong fell in love with her at first sight. Rather than punishing her, he offered to take her as his concubine, but she rejected him. She is believed to have secreted a knife in her nightwear in the event of Qianlong’s possible unwelcome advances. The empress dowager worried about her son’s safety and took this rebellious prisoner to one side, demanding that she either yield to the emperor’s wishes or take her own life. The captive princess took the latter course. When Qianlong learned of her death, he sent her body back to Xinjiang where it was buried in the Apak Hoja Mazzar in Kashgar (Kashi), known popularly as Fragrant Concubine’s Tomb.

Nothing, other than her family name and place of birth, in historical documents accords with the stories told of this legendary figure. Official accounts of her say that she was from a Uygur family that performed a meritorious service for the Qing Dynasty by assisting in the suppression of the Uygur rebels. Many of male members in her family were given prestigious titles as a reward, her brother being awarded the post of military minister. When the men in her clan went to Beijing to pay tribute to the emperor, they brought along with them their sister who was 23 years younger than Qianlong. The emperor instantly conferred on her the title of “Guiren” (Worthy Lady) -- imperial concubine of a lower ranking. He later promoted her a further two levels.

Qianlong lavished favor on this Uygur wife. He permitted her the unprecedented privilege of dressing in her native style, and built her a tower in which to reside in the Muslim community of the capital. He also hired a Uygur cook for her. Qianlong spoke the Uygur language and had no difficulty in communicating with her. Concubine Rong accompanied Qianlong on his trips to Suzhou, Yangzhou, Hangzhou and other southern cities, as well as to the imperial family hunting ground in Chengde. She was also part of the empress dowager and the emperor’s retinue on their imperial homages to Mount Tai and the Confucius Temple. The Turkish style bathroom in the Palace Museum is presumed to have been built for Concubine Rong.

Concubine Rong died of illness in 1788, at the age of 55, and was buried in an area reserved for concubines within Qianlong’s Yuling Mausoleum at the Eastern Qing Tombs. Part of her tomb chamber collapsed in 1979. A rescue excavation brought major discoveries to light, although the tomb had clearly been robbed. The words “In the name of Allah” had been written in Arabic on her coffin, and her hair, a white, blonde mixture, was braided into a long, single plait tied with a red cord. An opal stone unearthed from the tomb testifies to the owner’s status; it was a symbolic ornament from the tiara of a Qing imperial concubine. Also unearthed was a ridged, floral patterned hat embroidered in an ethnic minority script and inlaid with precious stones. These artifacts accord with descriptions of Concubine Rong in Qing documents. The majority of scholars believe that the legendary Fragrant Concubine was a dramatized version of Concubine Rong, and that the tomb in Kashi was her cenotaph.

Concubine Rong lived in the Forbidden City for 28 years and developed good relationships with other members of the imperial family. Before she died, she bequeathed her belongings to other concubines, servants and her family in Xinjiang. She was also greatly loved in her native land, where her people built her a cenotaph in memory of her.